The Maori

Environment
The Maori are a group of indigenous people believed to have come from a mythical Polynesian homeland of Hawaiki over one thousand years ago, and now reside in New Zealand. New Zealand is a country located South East of Australia. Because of New Zealand's location, it receives mild temperatures which decrease as a person goes south. The Maori also receive moderate rainfall and plenty of sun. There are many variations on the climate that exist in New Zealand.They experience summer starting in December which goes on until February. The days are long and sunny and the sunshine can even last until 9:00 pm. The winter months which start in June and ends in August, brings more rain and colder temperatures with snow appearing on the mountain ranges. The Maori must adapt to these changing weather patterns by making shelter for themselves. During the summer they wear less clothing, and during the winter they wear more clothing that are made from plants and animal skins.

The Maori used to live in rural areas but recently have shown to move to more urban areas. Although they do have a high level of competition, the reward is usually bragging rights or social status. While other cultures compete for resources for survival, the Maori used to have violent competition to show tribal strength. New Zealand has giant snails, flightless birds, few reptiles, and plants that can not be found anywhere else in the world. The only poisonous native animal is the katipo spider which lives on the sandy beaches. The environmental stresses that the Maori have to endure are the changing climates. Temperatures can be as high as 86 degrees Fahrenheit in the summer, to 50 degrees Fahrenheit in the winter. One important note is that this is a subtropical location meaning that it can be very humid in these areas.

Adaptations
The Maori have very physically strong bodies with relatively big builds which help conserve heat during low temperatures. They also have dark skin which would protect them from the heat of the sun. New Zealand has plenty of sunshine as previously mentioned and subtropical weather. One cultural adaptation the Maori have developed are the clothing that not only protects against the elements, but also show signs of social status. They use animal skins and plants to make clothing of different textures and designs. Another cultural adaptation is the importance of building relationships. Relationships helps build cooperation among the Maori and this cooperation builds shelters, and people working together to feed the population. One of the other important cultural adaptations of the Maori was agriculture. They used agriculture to feed the population and their livestock which eases the stress of hunting for the next meal.

Language of the Maori
The Maori use a Malayo-Polynesian language which is a family of languages that are divided into four sub-families. These language families include Indonesian, Melanesian, Micronesian, and Polynesian. The Maori language of New Zealand is an Eastern Polynesian language and is known as Re Reo Maori. The Maori did not always have written language but they did have symbols that were commonly understood. This changed however in 1820 when settlers arrived and realized that they needed a form of written language for the Maori in order to communicate and trade. The Maori then were excited on the subject of learning written language and that lead to problems in later years when the some of the Maori people decided that learning the settler's English language was more important than their own. However, the language lives on today and is a central part of the Maori culture.

Gender Roles

The Maori have two genders which are men and women. The men are the warriors of the tribe and women can not participate in warfare. The women are also not allowed to tattoo their faces like the men are. Women were still considered important however because of their ability to bear children. Women are also the people who perform the welcoming dance for visitors and guests of the tribe. However this is slowly changing because of the increase in gender equality issues. Men now participate with women in welcoming dances for tourists in New Zealand. Women can now participate in the warrior's dance as well. Although the social status of people who who do not follow the roles will be affected, it is generally becoming more accepted. The Maori culture is passed down from generation to generation through song and dance. They are taught the value of making friendly relationships with each other and  importance of physical strength. The biological bodies of males allow bigger muscle mass and body size. Women's bodies are more catered to bearing children and these biological differences are reflected in the Maori culture. The males are expected to be physically strong, and women have the important role of contributing to the Maori population. The protagonist in the story would have a really difficult time being accepted in the Maori culture. The gender roles in the Maori culture are rather specific and there are rarely if any similarities. However, the Maori do value relationships with other people and I believe there would eventually be some sort of acceptance. 

Subsistence

For the Maori culture has provided rich agriculture that has grown foods such as sweet potato, taro, yams, gourd and pacific cabbage trees. There would be a surplus of plants which they would cultivate in order to make ornaments or clothing. They traditionally eat a mix of cultivated, hunted and gathered foods. The traditional foods also include seaweed karengo, huhu grubs, pikopiko (fern shoots), and a fresh dish of mussels. This has changed slightly however by the way this food is prepared and presented for modern times. This different foods are available during different times during the year. In agriculture there are certain seasons for certain plants and foods. There is no "main" food but rather a variety of them. The rich land of New Zealand provides the ideal location for agriculture because of the subtropical weather. They are not dependent on any one food item in particular. The men are expected to do the heavy lifting and provide the means for crops and plants to grow. The women gather the plants and crops when they are ready to be harvested. Then the cycle starts again with the men digging and planting food and plants. 

Economic Systems
One of the surplus of food items are potatoes which are then used to fatten up the livestock. They grow a surplus of potatoes because they are easy to grow and was also a staple meal. The Maori do exhibit specialization of labor by splitting the work between genders. The men plant and grow the food while the women harvest, then the men take the harvested food and would store them in storehouses. The currency the Maori would use were the lands resources and agricultural foods for trade. These items could include fish, plants and other agricultural goods. They used a barter system which means that they exchanged services and other goods for other services and goods in return. The benefits of this system is that each group receives items that they need and provides a good relationships between the two groups. The negative effect this type of trade would have is the ability for one group to consistently have an item of value for the other group. This may force one of the groups to find another group to trade with.

Marriage

The Maori practice a monogamous marriage. Extended families would meet and discuss and debate the merits of a relationship. In only a few cases would some type of good be exchanged to one of the marrying families. Great feasts would be held to celebrate the marriage. During the marriage the Maori groom and bride touch fireheads and noses together allong them to share the same breath which is called Hongi. I believe this means that for the Maori, peace between tribes would be the reward for marriage. Men in Maori are free to be sexually active and have multiple partners before getting married and settling down. Women of rank however are expected to stay virgins until they marriage. The value of virgin women is much greater than those of virgin men. This was because there was more men than women and choosing a wife or husband depended on who was available. One of the most important rules is to not touch another person's hair or head especially a chief's head. They believe that the top of a person's head is sacred and to touch it would be an insult. However, sexual diversity is accepted within the Maori even homosexuality. 

Kinship

The Maori do not practice any descent patterns. They instead practice tribe culture and have deep ties to them. To the Maori, maintaining the lands of their tribes serves as an important defense to preserving their culture. They do not necessarily ignore them but they are less emphasized. They do celebrate ancestry but the tribe remains the most important aspect of their identity. They would fall under the kindred category because community and close ties are important to the Maori. Goods and property are passed down through marriage couples. Families feel that whatever they decide to pass down to their new family will be well taken care of. This shows respect and acceptance even if it is from one tribe to another. Some of the Maori name their young after ancestors to show signs of respect for them. The names the Maori choose usually have some type of meaning behind them. 

Social Organization

The Maori are organized into about thirty different tribes called iwis. Each tribe has their own traditional territory in New Zealand. I believe the Maori are stratified because of the many different traditions each tribe may have. Women have the important role of bearing children, but are limited in what they can do for their tribe like participate in wars. They do however contribute in other ways previously mentioned. Men have more freedom in the Maori because although they have responsibilities, as long as those responsibilities are met they are free to do whatever they wish. Gender has an influence on social status among the Maori. They also believe in what is known as mana which is a form of energy that is inherited or acquired. 

Political Structure

Each tribe of the Maori practice different traditions that hold the identity of each tribe. The chiefs of the tribes have great authority in the political and economic decisions of the tribe. They can decide which tribe they want to trade with and which they do not. It is important for the chiefs to have good relations with each other to avoid bitter feelings between tribes. Political power is transferred from the chiefs to the people they trust the most within the tribe. They are given positions of power and respect in the tribe which allows the Maori in that position with greater mana. The Maori also practiced a form of cannibalism because they believed that if they ate the flesh of a person with high mana, they could tap into that mana and transfer it to their own bodies. There were no standard punishments for breaking the rules but the Maori believes that a person who breaks a taboo they would be curse and spiritually punished. Even prisoners would not be executed, but rather kept alive so that they may experience the shame and spiritual punishment of being captured. 

The Role of Violence

The Maori are a competitive and physically strong group of warriors. Violence was used to show strength of a tribe and thus would give that tribe more power in the community. The Maori warrior dance known as Haka was a means of intimidation for their enemies. During the dance they would widen their eyes and stick out their tongues as a form of showing ruthlessness and no mercy. They believe that the uglier they look, the more intimidating they become. They also make as much noise as they can by screaming and yelling during Haka. Their also perform choreographed body positions which makes them appear larger as another form of intimidation.This dance is believe to bring out the mana in the warriors to use against their enemies and has even found its way into professional sports like Rugby. The effects that come from the violence is social status for the tribe. Other tribes would offer goods and services to keep the peace with a violent tribe. 

Religion

The Maori do practice religion, but one of the interesting parts is that there is no word for it. The word "whakapono" was introduced by missionaries which means faith and trust. The Maori believe that our world and the spirit world are one. This means that they believe spirits are all around us and in everything including rocks, trees, birds, insects, wind and many other things. There are serveral deities that the Maori worship and represent in their ritual ceremonies. Their religion does have an origin story of how people and all living things came to be. The story varies in little details between tribes when they retell it but there are common names and events that happen. The story begins with Ranginui (sky father) and Papatuanuku (earth mother) locked in an eternal embrace. Their children who were Tawhirimatea, Tane, Tangora, Rongo, and Haumia were also gods decided to try and separate them but were unsuccessful. Then Tane used his legs to push the sky apart from the earth and that is how the Ranginui was seperated from Papatuanuku. After this process Tawhirimatea became the god of wind, Tane god of the forest, Tangaroa god of the sea, Rongo god of cultivated foods and Haumia god of uncultivated foods. One of the religious rituals that the Maori practice is the pure rite. This done when a child was born and it purified and made a child's spiritual powers or mana permanent. This rite was also practiced when a Maori broke a taboo to protect their spirit from punishment. I believe these rituals are very important to the Maori and they would not function without it. The belief that there are spirits in everything and all around them give them the impression that they are always being watched keeping peace and social order. They would also tattoo their faces to show an undeniable declaration of who they are and their social status. 

Art

The art within the Maori culture are the tattooing of their faces which gives them both a physical and spiritual identity. They also tattoo their bodies and these tattoos show their tribe's culture and heritage. The Haka remains to be one of the most important warrior dances for the Maori. Earlier I described how the Maori use Haka to intimidate their enemies along with summoning their mana. This dance is also related to the god of war Tumatauenga. They also use songs to celebrate the different types of gods and use very loud drums that increases mana. Their traditional instruments consist of Tumutumu which are peices of stone, wood or bone that are tapped with strikers, and trumpets made from shells and wood which are called putatara. 

                                      

Conclusion

The Maori has had changes over the years due to English settlers in the 1800's. These settler's tried to instill their beliefs on to the Maori and for a time the culture seemed as though it would be lost. But the Maori have since embraced their culture and see it as a form of cultural identity for them in New Zealand. The Maori culture has attracted tourists in New Zealand and is a good opportunity for them to share their culture with people from different countries around the world. I would consider the culture to be healthy and thriving because of the popularity it has in New Zealand. When people think of the culture of New Zealand, they think of the Maori. In the modern world the Maori do not have much influence, but that is slowly changing because they are now receiving the attention they deserve in New Zealand by receive some of their traditional lands back. The Maori remain strong in New Zealand and I think that will remain a big part of New Zealand's identity in the future. 

Bibliography

Enviorment: http://www.newzealand.com/int/maori-culture/

                  http://www.tourism.net.nz/new-zealand/about-new-zealand/weather-and-climate.html

                                http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/urban-maori/page-1

Language: http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/1966/maori-language

                                http://www.maorilanguage.info/mao_lang_faq.html

Food of the Maori: http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/maori-foods-kai-maori

Taboo: http://www.traveltaboo.com/new-zealand-travel-tips-dos-and-donts/

Kinship: http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/maori-manners-and-social-behaviour-nga-mahi-tika/page-1

Religion: http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/traditional-maori-religion-nga-karakia-a-te-maori/page-1

Art: http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/maori-musical-instruments-taonga-puoro

Art as a Culture

Part 1
I believe what the cave artists were trying to illustrate was their way of life through cave drawings. The cave drawings were mostly animals so I believe that animals had a very important impact in their lives. There are maybe more animals than people in their cave drawings because these people might have been trying to relay some kind of information about them to others who explored the cave. They may have even drew those images to warn others of the potential danger of these specific animals. One painting that stood out to me was the cow with a collar around its neck implying that the artists had some type of domesticated animals living among them. The cave dwellers paintings depicted a culture that could have tried to domesticate these animals and have found some success. However, they may have also tried to record failures such as the painting with the wounded man. It appears as though he was wounded by a bison. One of the difficulties these humans had to navigate in order to paint these pictures was visible light. In order to travel deep into the cave, the cave dwellers would have had to have a light source such as fire. Even then, they must have thought of a way to keep that fire from going out too soon or risk losing track of the patch and becoming lost in pitch darkness. One possible function for this art was probably to warn other people of the dangers of some specific animals as previously mentioned. Another function for these paintings would be a record of events that the cave dwellers have either witnessed or made up. One of the more possible fictions for these drawings would be for story telling purposes. These drawings can give the individual viewer a sense of a background story about them. So when people from that culture would tell stories, they would also have illustrations of that particular story.

Part 2
A commonalty between the Lascaux Cave drawings and modern art are illustrations that tell a story. An example would be for those familiar with the religious story of Adam and Eve. The story involves a man, woman, apple, and a snake. These elements have been drawn into a single picture to illustrate the events leading up to the dramatic part of the story. For those who are not familiar with the story, the painting would be no more than an illustration of a nude man and woman next to an apple tree. The same can be said with the Lascaux cave drawing in my opinion. To a person unfamiliar to the stories of these people, these cave drawings are just painting of animals from earlier humans. To the cave dwellers however, they may have had some important value to a story that was culture specific to them. They may have had something to do with morals of the people and what happens when people disobey their possible life lesson.

Part 3
My favorite type of art are video games. To most this may sound odd because video games are considered to only be for younger people for entertainment purposes and not really considered art. There are many people involved in creating a video game, each with their own unique artistic abilities to make the game's narrative and visual effects as entertaining as possible. In many ways the start of a video game is like the start of a movie. There is a story element that is may or may not change as the game is being made. There are artists who draw sketches of the characters and environment so that the game developers have an idea on what the visual goal is when making the world. Then there are the people who design the levels and character movements along with the programmers who develop the mechanics of the game. There are many more aspects that I have left out which goes to show just how much time and effort goes into these games that most take for granted. The purpose or function of these video games are to immerse the player into these stories that movies can not do by making the player apart of the story. They may try to communicated just about anything like a point of view from a historic event such as in the game "1979 Revolution: Black Friday" which is a choice driven story that revolves around the Iranian revolution of 1979.

The culture of video games have interested the public and now involves many people around the world. It is a relatively new art form and has caused some controversy because of the graphic content some of these games have such as strong language and other adult material. Some developers have adapted however because they now include options to exclude some of the content people may find offensive such as blood and strong language. This art form benefits society because it incorporates the story elements that encourage morally correct behavior. Video games also benefit society by giving the public an outlet to express some emotion that may seem offensive or even dangerous through an imaginary world. The only detrimental aspect to video games is that it could possibly give the wrong ideas to the wrong people. For example, someone who plays a video game that involves shooting people now know that the most effective way to kill them is by shooting their heads. In my opinion however video games do more good than harm if they are used in an appropriate manner and knowing that everything in the video game is fake and not meant to be brought into the real world.

Politics and Violence of the Yanomamo

Rules of killing
1) The Yanomamo do not have any written language or laws within their society that protects people from violent deaths. They do however have a mutual understanding that killing other in retaliation or revenge killing is acceptable. If a person is killed by another person from a different tribe, it is acceptable for the kin of the victim to form raids to kill in swift retaliation. The person who first committed the murder may or may not be killed during these raids. When a tribe is raiding another tribe, any male is a prime target of the raiders. After the raiding, the group returns to the home village and performs unokais rituals that give them spiritual protection from the spirits of their victims. This is how justice is served within the Yanomamo.

In western society killing is only acceptable in self defense. An example of this is a home invasion where a person's life or family may be in danger. However, revenge killing is not acceptable in western societies. Although the victims of the crime may angrily disagree, there is a judicial process that must be undertaken before a punishment for a murderer is decided. The punishments include a large amount of time or even life in prison. Sometimes, the punishment for the crime is death but this is not practiced by all states. To avoid the death penalty, people who stand trial for murder tend to present themselves before a judge as clinically insane. Some of these cases may have legitimate people with some kind of mental problem. During the trails, a judge and jury are given the power to pass judgement for the person standing trial. The difference between the Yanomamo and western society is that the Yanomamo's revenge killing is not only acceptable, but also a community effort. In western society, killing is avoided even after a person commits murder in most cases. 

Process of Revenge Killings

2) The Yanomamo go through a process of violence before revenge killings occur. This process consists of shouting matches, chest pounding duels, side slapping duels, club fights, fights with axes and machetes, and shooting with bows and arrows with the intent to kill each other. With each step in the process, violence gradually increases until the Yanomamo begin killing. These actions are started by many things that western society would deem inappropriate such as killing over sexual jealousy. If a Yanomamo male is considered cowardly because of his lack of killing, other males may try to sexually seduce their wives. This causes tension and eventually death for one of the Yanomamo males. In western cultures, jealousy is seen as an emotion that can be harmful or fun to play around with. 

The Status of Unokais

3) Unokais are people among the Yonomamo who have killed. Within the Yonomamo, gaining the status of Unokais has more benefits than disadvantages. One benefit that comes from becoming unokais is the reputation of being fierce. This reputation serves as a form of protection from other tribes that may want to attack them. The more unokais there are in a trible, the less likely of them becoming under attack from another tribe. Another benefit of the reputation of unokais are less men who will try to seduce the warrior's spouse. For fear of death, other Yonomamo males will try to avoid the spouses of unokais and instead target the spouses of males who are not unokais. The males who have become unokais have also a higher chance to reproduce. Being a non-unokais also has its own benefits however because they are not constantly risking their lives raiding other villages. Tribes sometimes travel far distances that could take days to reach another village to raid. There is also no guarantee that they will make it back from the trip to their home village. If a unokais dies, then the male who has chosen to not become unokais may seduce the former spouse. Non-unokais are also often mocked and ridiculed because of their unwillingness to fight. Because the benefits outweigh the risk, a Yanomamo man may choose to become unokais. 

The Relationships between Revenge Killing and Yanomamo Culture

4) Revenge killing does not only contribute to the retaliation motives of the Yanomamo, but it also contributes to the political power of the head of the tribes. The head of the tribes are the ones who decide if revenge killing will be carried out by his village. These villages raid other villages to not only assert their power, but also to force the women of their tribe to join the raider's tribe. With more women in a tribe, the unokais have more women to marry and bear their children. This in turn also adds to the social status of Yanomamo tribes who have many unokais in the village. The Yanomamo tribe leaders practice polygamy which allows high reproduction which adds a higher amount of members to a tribe. In many ways, the people who live among another in a village are related because of the repetitive intermarriages. These large kin groups then protect and avenge each other in revenge killings when one of their own is murdered. Revenge killing has become apart of the Yanomamo culture and contributes highly to it. 

Laws Against Anti-Social Behaviors

5) We need laws against anti-social behaviors such as killing so that we do not live in constant fear for our lives. The Yanomamo begin violent actions with just a thought of another village practicing some sort of black magic on them. These ideas are dangerous in the Yanomamo culture because they start fights and even wars that causes deaths on both sides. With laws against killing however, there is a process by which a person must go through a trail and be found to be the person who committed the crime. It is important to note that revenge killing does not have to include the person who committed the murder. This means that the person who killed put their families' lives in danger from retaliation. Not all people kill on purpose, sometimes it is accidental such as in a car crash whether a drunk driver was involved or not. Accidents happen and unintentional consequences follow, and this is why laws are put in place so that the party responsible faces the appropriate consequences.

Kinship Interview: My mother's perspective of Guatemala

1) The person I chose for my kinship interview was my mother. She was born in Sinaca, Guatemala located in Central America in the year 1965. She had four siblings which consisted of two older sisters, one younger sister, and one younger brother and was raised by her mother and father. My mother comes from a culture that practices some Catholic beliefs, but also some supernatural such as witchcraft. The belief that curses are put upon by witches are still alive and well in Guatemala. It is considered necessary for the women to learn some type of white magic remedies to protect their family from witchcraft. It is however, taboo to practice black magic and should not be sought out because black magic attracts demons. Not far from Sinaca is what is known as "La Antigua" (Antique Guatemala) where temples from ancient Mayan civilizations are located. She then migrated to the United States in search of better opportunities for herself and her family. She has since gained legal residency and visits her home country whenever she is able to on holidays.

2) While the interview was taking place there was no sense of awkwardness or discomfort with any of the questions it was actually the complete opposite. With every question she opened up more and more of what she remembered about growing up in Guatemala and the people she found support in. I myself was also comfortable during the interview because I speak to my mother regularly about a variety of different subjects. If I would have been interviewing a complete stranger I would not have received all the information I did. The reason why I believe it would have been more difficult interviewing a stranger is because there would not be a strong mutual level of trust. The information on witchcraft is a taboo to even mention in Guatemala unless it is to a direct family member. I personally had no idea that belief is still in my family. With a stranger I would have to be careful not to ask too many personal questions or the interviewee might distance themselves from the conversation.

3) The pattern I noticed in my family is lineage. My mother mentioned how she is a descendant from a Guatemalan Indian woman who decided to leave her tribe to marry her love. She does not remember her name however, but that it was the starting point to how her family came to be many generations later. The story of this woman was passed down from generation to generation but somewhere along the way the name was forgotten entirely. The little information that was passed down to me was what I have just mentioned. One tradition that has been in the family is to respect elders. Elders in the family are considered of the highest rank within the family. The younger generations must respect them and take their advice into consideration when making decisions. There are very few ethnic differences in her family. The only thing that makes communication difficult is the location in Guatemala where they reside. In certain areas in Guatemala, there are no computers or even telephones. This is slowly changing however, and now most of her close relatives are starting to communicate with family using social media such as Facebook.

4) I have met most of my mother's and father's families but do not really know my father's family well. My mother's brother moved to the United States many years ago and had children that are close to my age. But for personal reasons that I would rather not share, I do not know my cousins or father's family at a personal level. When I do socialize with family, they are usually from my mother's side. In my family, my mother has the most influence on decisions for the family. She has this power because of everything she has done for her family. She works to provide food and a roof under her family's heads, she is considered the head of the household. Family members who are married into the family are treated like family. However, they are quickly disowned by the family if they disrespect my mother. There are no difference in attitude toward different genders in my family. Everyone is expected to do something that benefits the family in one way or another. I have learned really interesting things about my family through this exercise. I did not know that the older generations of my family still believe in witchcraft. I also was unaware of the ancient Mayan temples that are relatively close to where my mother's family lives. I have also come to the realization that my family holds loyalty as one of the most important aspects a person can have.

Subsistence and Economy: Hunter Gatherers and Agriculture

Part 1: Agriculture

1) Agriculture is defined as the cultivation of food plants in soil prepared and maintained for crop production. The benefit to agriculture is growing a population's own food using the same materials to feed the people and livestock. This practice is then used by the next generation and so on to keep a rising population. Agriculture also allows people to live off the land instead of depending on the population of certain animals.

As previously mentioned, agriculture can also help feed livestock so that the population also has meat they can add to their diet.

Although animals provide meat, some animals are used for other purposes such as providing milk for the population.

Hunter Gatherers

Like agriculture, there are also beneficial aspects of Hunter Gatherers. Their primary diet consists of meat which gives them stronger bodies because of the animals they hunt down. They also forage for plants that may contain healing properties. 

Hunter gatherers may also be more accustomed to the land they forage in. Every environment poses its own set of challenges, but hunter gathers might have learned some helpful tricks that only work for that specific environment and it's wildlife. This includes no spoils in the animals they successfully capture because every part of the animal will be used and has some benefit to the population like shelter or clothing. 

2) Although there are many benefits to both agriculture and hunter gatherers, they each also have their own disadvantages. For example, hunter gatherers depend on their skill in hunting animals and the availability of them in the first place. If the animal population were to decrease then the population would suffer and also decrease. This does not mean that agriculture is more well off than hunter gatherers because they rely heavily on the environment. Sometimes unexpected natural occurrences such as a drought may happen preventing them from growing crops to feed the people or their livestock because of the lack of water. 

3) In my opinion, agriculture serves the healthier diet than hunter gatherers. Agriculture than grow many different type of foods. Some foods such as carrots contain nutrients in them that improve eyesight. There are also other vegetables that provide some type of benefit to a healthier lifestyle. But agriculture is not only limited to vegetables but also meat because of the livestock. They feed and allow the animals to reproduce so they do not have to go hunt for more animals to add to their livestock. What the animals eat can also be controlled in order to have better quality meat. This is why I believe agriculture has the upper hand in a healthier diet. 

4) Early human populations started to transition into agriculture because of the probable abundant availability of a food source. I would imagine that hunting for animals would take time and the hunting endeavors would not always turn out to be successful.  With agriculture, there would be more security in there being something to eat in the future. But those early humans could have also found room for hunter gathers to find animals to add to the livestock for food. Although there are many more benefits to agriculture, people can not grow animals from the ground. So there was still a need for hunter gatherers which may in fact have actually helped agriculture grow. 

Part 2

1) The meaning of the statement in which there is a relationship between the availability of surplus and the ability to trade is that even if there is a surplus of a particular food or item, it is not valuable if there is not one to trade with. It could also mean that the ability to transport one form of goods from other population to another may also be difficult or even impossible. 

2) Not only is trade beneficial by receiving certain types of goods from someone else, but it also helps build social relationships. This social benefit would allow for an equilibrium between two parties. They would have an agreement that they would only trade a certain type of good with each other which would benefit them both. Another social benefit of trade is generalized reciprocity in which whatever is given is not expected to have some sort of returned payment. An example of this is buying food for someone and not expecting anything from them. This does not only benefit the receiver, but also the person who shown kindness by giving them a "feel good" feeling. 

3) Like most things, there is a negative aspect for developmental trade. One of the negative social results are negative reciprocity which is to get more than what you give. Another word which most people recognize when addressing negative reciprocity is "cheating". This is the person who does whatever it takes to take advantage of another person and practices unfairness to end up on top. Another negative social aspect of developmental trade is a decrease is social standing. If for whatever reason a person does not repay a debt their social standing may be impacted. This causes a bad reputation and with a bad reputation, it becomes much more challenging to find another person to trade with.

4) With the development of agriculture came the development of trade. Agriculture allowed populations to start growing their own food and trade goods. This increase in trade goods allowed two different populations who practice agriculture to trade crops that the other does not grow. So both population would benefit because both would have crops from the other that they would not have otherwise. They are not only limited to crops however, they can also trade livestock for crops depending on a population's needs. Trade would also keep the peace between two different populations because they would realize that they need each other in order to receive certain types of goods. Trade would not happen so often before because there would not be much to trade as hunter gatherers. I would imagine it would be difficult to come across a surplus of food availability and would thus limit their trading power.  

The Language Experiment

Part 1

• For this experiment I was communicating in a conversation between my little brother and my girlfriend. I found the experiment difficult because I was very limited to what I could express with just my body language alone. For the most part, it was like a game of charades where I had to use my body to guide them to the words I wanted to say. There were many times were I used my hands to make certain gestures that would allow them to know if they were getting close to what I wanted to say. But they would not always get the exact word, but they would come up with similar words to what I was thinking.

• Both my partners laughed at my facial expressions and body language. They also expressed how they now appreciate being able to communicate and say what they wanted to say to anyone. At first, it was difficult for them to understand my body language, but after some time they eventually became used to it and picked up on cues from my facial expressions and hand signals. Although they rarely said the actual word I was thinking they still managed to keep me in the conversation by saying something similar to the words I was trying to express. My partners did in fact have to alternate to some extent to the way they would usually speak because of my lack of symbolic communication. They would speak at the same speed they would in a normal conversation, but they had to slow down and stop the conversation when they were trying to figure out what I wanted to add to the topic. 

• I believe that the culture that would have the advantage when communicating complex ideas is the culture that uses symbolic language. Because the culture with symbolic language have an alphabet, there are many words they could say that could express an idea. They can also communicate with other people in their culture clearly allowing them to work trade and work together. The attitude cultures may have toward the culture that does not use symbolic language would be an ethnocentric attitude. They would believe that since their own culture uses symbolic language, they must be more advanced that the one who doesn't. Fact is, there are many cultures are the word that may be similar or vastly different from one another. But this does not make that culture have any less value that other cultures. Individuals in our own culture that have difficulty communicating with spoken language are deaf people. Because they  cannot hear the language, most of them cannot make the different sounds we use to speak the words. It can be difficult if you try to communicate with a deaf person by only using spoken language because they will not be able to communicate in the same way. However, they can in fact read lips and this helps them better understand what the other person is trying to communicate. This does not mean that they can't communicate however, because they use their hands and bodies for what is known as Sign Language. Sign language has an alphabet in which a person can form words together, but not sounds.  

Part 2

 

• I was actually unable to last the full 15 minutes using only speech for communication. What made it difficult for me was that whenever I would say a word my body would subconsciously move in correlation. My partners caught me moving my eyebrows when I was curious in what they were saying. They were also saying some things I found humorous and it was very difficult not to laugh, but I eventually gave in. I did not realize if I was making facial expressions or not. It gave me a new perspective on how important facial expression and body language is. 

• My partners expressed how they had more fun when I could not use speech for communication. They found my appearance and tone to be emotionless, and empty. We were able to communicate more effectively, at the cost of the quality of the conversation. Whenever I said something it was short and to the point because I was focusing more on not moving my body or make facial expressions. 

• This experiment has shown me that body language is a very important aspect to the way we communicate with each other. Non-speech language techniques only help what we are trying to communicate with one another. Body language alone can give a person many hints into what that person may be feeling for example. Verbal speech and body language can be used effectively to express an idea or concern. 

• No one is perfect at any one thing, and this also includes reading body language. I believe there are people who can pick up on body language more than others. These people may not understand what you are trying to say until you actually say the words. On the other hand, there are people who read body language so well that they may become offended if you look at them a certain way. I do not believe there is any non-benefit to not reading body language. It can help spot a dangerous situation for instance if a person were hostile. A clenched fist, heavy breathing, grinding teeth, and wide open eyes are all examples of body language that can be used to determine that it would not be safe to approach a certain individual. 

Part 3

• The experiment in Part 1 would have defiantly been easier if I was able to use written language. Being able to use written language would have made communicating with my partners easier. During that part of the experiment I was also able to use body language and facial expressions. So I would have still been able to say what I wanted to say just not verbally. My partners would have understood the writing and we could have communicated entirely through writing if we were required to. 

• The advantage the written language provides to the culture that develops and uses it are preserved ideas and historical accounts. It also proves another mean of communication if a person can not verbally speak. Written language has provided our society with books of fact and fiction that is a form of entertainment. 

• Written language has allowed us to communicate with people around the word who speak the same language. Before the internet, people would send each other written letters that expressed ideas or emotions. But sometimes those letters would take days or even months to receive. The internet has changed our culture drastically. It is now normal for people to walk with their heads down looking at their phone while they cross the street. In my opinion the internet has had both benefits and disadvantages. In the form of written communication, it has helped share ideas with different people around the world. We trade information with people from different cultures and backgrounds. With written communication, recipes for different foods from different cultures can be found on the internet. Before, recipes could only be shared if the person were to physically be shown how to make the food. Globalization includes all types of different ideas and information shared between different people both near and far. So written communication is just as important and verbal communication. 

Environmental Adaptations: Zulu and Andean Indians

Zulu

   The Zulu are a Southern African tribe who are primarily located in KwaZulu-Natal which borders the Eastern Cape in the south, Indian ocean to the east, and Lesotho to the west. They live in flat coastal plains which often exposes them to the sun with occasionally brief rain. This type of climate brings with it intense heat with little relief from the sun. Because of the environment, the Zulu's bodies have biologically developed protections against the weather. For example, their skin has a dark pigment that helps block off the sun's ultraviolet rays. They also have skinnier bodies that have less surface area that allow heat to quickly exist out of their bodies. Because of this biological change, they handle the extreme environment conditions better than people without this advantage. 

During ceremonies, traditional clothes are worn with include: colorful attire, beads, feathers, and local animal furs. These ceremonies include weddings and rites of passage among others. These cultural traditions allow the Zulu to have social standings and a rich cultural society. They practice polygamy which is an example of a cultural aspect that can assist the Zulu population not only in social standing, but also with the environment they face. The more wives a Zulu man has, the more respect he gains among his peers. The Zulu wives are only responsible for their direct families, however this practice can help the Zulu population grow allowing more hunters and gathers to join the society. 

Although there are different tribes with similar and vastly different cultures in South Africa, I would describe the Zulu people as South African because of their geographic location. 

Andean Indians

The Andean Indians are group of people located in South America primary located in the Andes Mountains. These mountains extend from Venezuela to the southern tip of the South America which range to about 4,500 miles long. The average height of the Andes mountains are 13,000 feet above sea level. The climate in the Andes mountains depends on the area considered. There are parts of the long range of the mountains that can be rainy and cold, or warm and dry. There is not much drastic change in weather because the Andes Mountains serve as a wall for South America against the Pacific Ocean. This means that the weather changes are primarily felt down the mountain further into the continent. 

One physical adaptation the Andean Indians have developed are the increased air intake with every breath. It is unsure if the Andean Indians have genetically adapted to the heightened elevation, but there is evidence that a human's body works harder in elevated environments because of the pressure it puts on the body. The higher a human goes above sea level, the more the heart works against the pressure to supply the body with enough blood to keep functioning. However, the Andean Indians seem to have adapted to the environment because they along with the ancestors before them, have lived there for thousands of years. 

A cultural adaptation that the Andean Indians have been accustomed to is the agriculture. Surprisingly, crops have been able to grow in the heights of the Andean mountains. They grow many different crops which include: maize, sweet potato, beans, and many others. Because of this agriculture, food has become more available to the Andean population without much effort. More food means there is more population growth and trade.   

I would describe the Andean Indians as South American also based on their geographic location. Their environment contributes highly to their way of life.

Summary

I would base both races on their geographic location. For the Zulu I have chose South African and for the Andean Indians I have chosen South American. I believe there are both benefits and disadvantages to both views on race. For example, calling the Andean Indians just that based on their appearance would probably confuse many. On the other hand, it may be easier to knowledge the specific group of people being discussed, and same goes for the Zulu. So in my personal point of view, both ways of looking at it are both correct and incorrect.  

Cited Sources

Zulu environment: http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Rwanda-to-Syria/Zulu.html

Zulu physical adaptation: http://anthro.palomar.edu/adapt/adapt_2.htm

 Zulu cultural adaptation http://www.zulu-culture.co.za/zulu_family.php#.VxfX1_krKUk

Andean Indians environment: http://www.livescience.com/27897-andes-mountains.html

Andean Indians physical: http://anthro.palomar.edu/adapt/adapt_3.htm

                                          http://www.ub.edu/HAPPOM/actividades/pdf/rupert2001.pdf

Andean Indians cultural adaptations:http://www.britannica.com/topic/Central-American-Indian